Tools
Burn Fluid Resuscitation
Introduction
In the United States, approximately 500,000 people seek care for burn injuries each year. Among civilians, these injuries most commonly result from house fires, motor vehicle crashes, and work-related accidents. Burn injuries account for 5% to 10% of combat casualties.[1] The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identify burns as one of the most common causes of home injuries in individuals aged 19 or younger.[2] Several practice guidelines have been released to emphasize the importance of optimal care and management of burn injuries. Organizations such as the International Society for Burn Injuries (ISBI) and the American Burn Association (ABA) have published guidelines and updates to address the needs of both resource-limited and resource-abundant regions.[3][4][5]
Burn injuries can result from various sources, including thermal elements, grease, friction, electricity, and chemicals. The severity of a burn depends on factors such as the affected area, duration of contact, and the patient’s preexisting health conditions. Accurate classification is essential for the proper assessment and treatment of burn patients. Burns are classified by depth—superficial burns affect only the epidermis; superficial partial-thickness burns extend into the papillary dermis; deep partial-thickness burns reach the reticular dermis; and full-thickness burns damage both skin layers and the underlying subcutaneous tissue.[6][7]
Total body surface area (TBSA) is used to measure the percentage of burned skin. Only partial and full-thickness burns are considered when determining the need for fluid resuscitation. Fluid resuscitation is required for burns exceeding 20% TBSA in adults and 10% to 15% in children, although specific cutoffs may vary by institution. Various resuscitation formulas provide guidelines for initiating fluid replacement to prevent complications and improve patient outcomes.
Anatomy and Physiology
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Anatomy and Physiology
Fluid loss is arguably the most significant issue for patients who sustain burn injuries, therefore making volume replacement crucial. Burn management is typically divided into 3 phases—early resuscitative, wound management, and rehabilitative or reconstructive. This activity primarily focuses on the early resuscitative phase following initial stabilization. While fluid management guidelines have been in place since the early 1960s, protocols for the first 24 hours remain controversial.
In the early resuscitative phase, the primary concern is hypovolemia due to increased capillary permeability. Thermal injury triggers the release of inflammatory markers both systemically and locally at the site of injury. These markers induce vasodilation and increase capillary permeability throughout the body, leading to a significant fluid shift out of the intravascular compartment. The inflammatory response to thermal burns is far more intense than that observed in trauma or sepsis patients.[8] Contributing factors include histamines,[9] leukotrienes, and a damaged glycocalyx.[10][11]
Burn shock is a complex condition involving distributive, cardiogenic, and hypovolemic shock.[12] This is characterized by decreased cardiac output, increased systemic vascular resistance, and depleted intravascular volume, which exacerbates the shock state. Therefore, replacing fluid in the intravascular compartment is crucial to preserve tissue perfusion and maintain the function of vital organs.[2][13]
Indications
A subset of patients with burn injuries also sustain additional traumatic injuries.[14] The initial provider must not become so focused on the visible burn injury that they overlook other potentially life-threatening injuries that may be less apparent. Airway assessment, hemorrhage control, and adherence to advanced trauma life support guidelines are critical for proper management.[15] As with any trauma patient, fluid management should be based on weight and burn size and initiated immediately after the primary airway evaluation. However, administering a fluid bolus in burn patients without evidence of hypovolemia is unnecessary and can have several negative consequences, including worsening edema formation. Therefore, fluid bolus administration should be avoided in these cases.[12]
An intact gastrointestinal tract can serve as a conduit for fluid resuscitation. Notably, many burn patients with a significantly involved TBSA may not tolerate oral resuscitation. Therefore, oral fluid resuscitation is recommended only for patients with less than 30% TBSA.[16] Burns covering more than 20% TBSA in adults and over 10% to 15% TBSA in children require formal fluid resuscitation.[4][17] Commonly used methods for calculating TBSA include the Lund and Browder chart for both children and adults, the Rule of Nines for adults, and the Palmar method. Please see StatPearls' companion resource, "Rule of Nines," for more information.
Generally, the Rule of Nines estimates the TBSA affected by burns by assigning specific percentages to different body regions. The entire head is estimated to account for 9% of the TBSA (4.5% for the anterior and 4.5% for the posterior). The trunk is estimated at 36% (18% allocated to the anterior and 18% to the posterior components). The anterior aspect of the trunk can be further divided into the chest (9%) and abdomen (9%). The upper extremities contribute a total of 18%, with each arm accounting for 9%. Each arm can be divided into anterior and posterior sections (4.5% each). The lower extremities are estimated at 36%, with 18% for each leg. Each leg can be divided into anterior and posterior sections (9% each). The groin is estimated at 1%.[18]
The Lund and Browder chart is considered the most accurate method, offering precise estimations of TBSA by dividing body areas into smaller components, thus improving accuracy. For minor burns, the Palmar method can be used, utilizing the patient's palm and fingers as a template to estimate the affected TBSA with an accuracy of approximately 1%.[19]
Technique or Treatment
Crystalloid fluids are the preferred choice for burn resuscitation due to their isotonic composition, which closely resembles plasma and helps achieve better outcomes. Hypotonic fluids are avoided as they can exacerbate edema.[10] Lactated Ringer solution is recommended for initial resuscitation across all age groups. However, infants are more prone to hypoglycemia due to limited glycogen stores, necessitating the addition of dextrose. Pediatric burn resuscitation formulas may include maintenance fluids with or without dextrose, depending on the child's age.[20][21][22]
The ABA recently published clinical guidelines addressing the role of colloids in burn resuscitation. Albumin may be administered throughout the resuscitation process or as a rescue intervention to reduce overall fluid requirements.[10] These guidelines recommend considering the administration of albumin in situations where resuscitative efforts are ineffective and crystalloid needs are increasing. These recommendations are stronger for patients with larger TBSA and weaker for those with smaller TBSA. However, no definitive recommendations exist for centers using albumin in resuscitation protocols on whether it should be administered before or after 12 hours.[23] The guidelines also discuss additional recommendations for using plasma, vitamin C, and other resuscitative adjuncts.
Various resuscitation formulas are used for burn management, with the Parkland and modified Brooke formulas being the most common in adults.[24] Developed in 1968 by Dr Charles Baxter, the Parkland formula is widely recognized for fluid replacement in burn injuries. The formula recommends administering 4 mL of lactated Ringer solution per kilogram of body weight per percentage of TBSA burned (4 mL/kg/%TBSA) in adults and 3 mL/kg/%TBSA in pediatric patients, with half given in the first 8 hours and the remainder over the next 16 hours. Discrepancies persist in patients where body surface area (BSA) calculations are unreliable, such as in pediatric patients and those with obesity. When first introduced, the Parkland formula was unique for recommending higher fluid volumes compared to its predecessors. The modified Brooke formula, similar to the Parkland formula, recommends 2 mL/kg/%TBSA for adults.[11] Please see StatPearls' companion resource, "Parkland Formula," for more information.
One of the most significant differences in pediatric burn resuscitation is the variation in BSA and skin thickness.[25][21] Children have a greater BSA-to-body mass ratio, rendering them more susceptible to hypothermia and increasing their fluid requirements for burns of any size. Children have different body proportions, such as larger heads and smaller legs, which must be considered when calculating their TBSA.[26] Although several widely used formulas have been adopted in clinical practice, variations exist based on whether TBSA or BSA is the primary determinant.[20][21]
The formulas that use TBSA include the Parkland formula, which administers 4 mL/kg/%TBSA, and the modified Brooke formula, which uses 3 mL/kg/%TBSA.[11] The Cincinnati formula retains TBSA while also incorporating BSA, recommending 4 mL/kg/%TBSA of lactated Ringer solution plus 1500 mL/m² of total BSA. In contrast, the Galveston formula uses only BSA for fluid resuscitation, recommending 5000 mL/m² of BSA burned plus 2000 mL/m² of total BSA of lactated Ringer solution. Both the Cincinnati and Galveston formulas may include colloid in their resuscitation protocols.[20][21]
A retrospective review by Stevens et al in 2023 compared pediatric resuscitative formulas incorporating BSA to the Parkland formula.[21] No significant difference in fluid volume administered was observed between the Parkland and Cincinnati groups across all weight categories. The Galveston formula underpredicted fluid delivery. However, patients with higher body mass received greater fluid volumes compared to patients with obesity.[21]
In adults, fluid resuscitation goals generally include urine output (UOP) of 30 to 50 mL/h or 0.5 to 1.0 mL/kg/h with an indwelling catheter, a base deficit of less than 2, systolic blood pressure above 90 mm Hg, palpable peripheral pulses, and no altered mental status. Although studies indicate these variables are reliable predictors of fluid resuscitation, many physicians rely solely on UOP. In 1991, Dries and Waxman found that vital signs and UOP did not significantly change after volume repletion, while measurements from pulmonary artery catheterization were much more significant.[27] This suggested that cardiac output was the most sensitive measure for guiding fluid therapy. However, this approach requires the placement of a pulmonary artery catheter, leading many burn units to be reluctant to adopt this method for guidance.
Other proposed methods for goal-directed therapy include transpulmonary thermodilution and arterial pressure wave analysis. For children with a body weight of less than 30 kg, the recommended UOP goal is 1 mL/kg/h, while for those with a body weight of more than 30 kg, the target is 0.5 mL/kg/h. Similar to adults, relying solely on UOP as a measure of efficacy is controversial and often misleading. Sheridan et al suggest that in infants, resuscitation goals should be determined by sensorium, physical examination, pulse, and systolic blood pressure, in addition to UOP.[28][29] Additional parameters for therapy end points in the pediatric population include lactate levels, invasive transpulmonary thermodilution, and central venous pressures. These factors highlight areas that require further investigation for both children and adults.
An exception to the previously stated UOP goal applies to patients with rhabdomyolysis and/or acute renal failure, where mortality can reach as high as 70% in severe burns. In these cases, fluids should be administered at a rate that achieves a UOP of 1 mL/kg/h.[30] However, notably, "more is not better," as the risk of fluid overload can be as life-threatening as the burn injury itself. Neither mannitol nor sodium bicarbonate is more effective in treating acute renal failure than fluid loading alone.[31][32]
Complications
Patients often arrive at burn centers after receiving excessive hydration during transport, a result of inexperienced first responders or clinicians who may overestimate the burn size.[33][5] Additional factors have been identified that predispose burn patients to increased fluid requirements, including inhalation injury, delays in resuscitation, polytrauma, or high-voltage electrical injury.[34] The phenomenon referred to as "fluid creep" poses a challenge in burn management, as over-resuscitation can lead to detrimental outcomes, such as pulmonary and cerebral edema, or compartment syndrome of the extremities or abdomen.[11][33][5]
Abdominal compartment syndrome can develop in patients with intra-abdominal pressure exceeding 20 mm Hg and signs of end-organ dysfunction. This condition may arise in patients receiving excessive fluid resuscitation. A common symptom of abdominal compartment syndrome is oliguria, which can lead to excessive fluid administration if clinical data are misinterpreted, particularly if other related signs, such as elevated inspiratory pressures and decreased tidal volumes, are not considered.[11][20] Extremity compartment syndrome can occur in both burned and unburned limbs due to over-resuscitation, leading to increased osteofascial compartment pressures exceeding 30 mm Hg, along with signs of impairment of circulation.[11][35]
Clinical Significance
Extensive research on the pathophysiology and outcomes of burn patients has established that prompt fluid resuscitation is critical for survival in these patients.[36] The implementation of more efficient fluid replacement protocols has led to a reduction in mortality within the first 48 hours.[37] Suboptimal resuscitation can increase burn depth and prolong the shock period, ultimately raising the risk of mortality.[38][39]
On the other hand, over-resuscitation can result in additional complications, including compartment syndrome affecting the abdomen, extremities, and orbits, as well as worsening acute respiratory distress syndrome.[11][5] Therefore, while resuscitation formulas provide guidelines for initial fluid replacement, ongoing resuscitation must be tailored to the individual patient's needs and current clinical condition.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
The practice guidelines for fluid management in burn patients are designed for healthcare professionals involved in providing acute care in this area. Effective management of burn patients requires clear and open communication among emergency medical services, nursing staff, and physicians. Proper fluid resuscitation is a critical component of treatment, as there is a limited timeframe in which to administer the correct volume of fluids; both excessive and insufficient fluids can lead to severe consequences.[40] Generally, intensivists, plastic surgeons, or general surgeons lead the management efforts. However, caring for burn patients requires a multidisciplinary approach to achieve the best outcomes, with valuable contributions from nursing staff, ancillary teams, nutritionists, and physical and occupational therapists.
Nursing staff must collaborate with the clinical team to monitor fluids, UOP, vital signs, and breath sounds, ensuring adequate hydration while preventing fluid overload. Any changes in patient status should be promptly documented and communicated to the appropriate interprofessional healthcare team members to facilitate timely interventions. Treating burn patients is complex, as they are at risk for complications such as sepsis, cardiac dysfunction, neurogenic issues, and fluid imbalances. Clinical success requires a highly skilled and attentive team. Additionally, a cross-sectional, descriptive, analytic study identified communication barriers faced by burn patients, including the fast-paced nature of the intensive care unit and difficulty expressing symptoms due to their medical condition.[41] Therefore, providing a safe and supportive environment is essential to promoting effective patient communication and ensuring their needs are met.
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